Differential hormonal and gene expression dynamics in two inbred sunflower lines with contrasting dormancy level.

Seed germination and dormancy are tightly regulated by hormone metabolism and signaling pathway. We investigated the endogenous content of abscisic acid (ABA), its catabolites, and gibberellins (GAs), as well as the expression level of certain ABA and GAs metabolic and signaling genes in embryo of dry and imbibed cypselas of inbred sunflower (Helianthus annuus L., Asteraceae) lines: B123 (dormant) and B91 (non-dormant). Under our experimental conditions, the expression of RGL2 gene might be related to the ABA peak in B123 line at 3 h of imbibition. Indeed, RGL2 transcripts are absent in dry and early embedded cypselas of the non-dormant line B91. ABA increase was accompanied by a significant ABA-Glucosyl ester (ABA-GE) and phaseic acid (PA) (two ABA catabolites) decrease in B123 line (3 h) which indicates that ABA metabolism seems to be more active in this line, and that it would be involved in the imposition and maintenance of sunflower seed dormancy, as it has been reported for many species. Finally, an increase of bioactive GAs (GA1 and GA3) occurs at 12 h of imbibition in both lines after a decrease in ABA content. This study shows the first report about the RGL2 tissue-specific gene expression in sunflower inbred lines with contrasting dormancy level. Furthermore, our results provide evidence that ABA and GAs content and differential expression of metabolism and signaling genes would be interacting in seed dormancy regulation through a mechanism of action related to embryo itself.

Modulation of macrophage inflammatory profile in pregnant nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice.

During normal early pregnancy circulating monocytes are recruited to the maternal-placental interface where they differentiate to macrophages expressing different functional phenotypes for the maintenance of tissue homeostasis. Pregnancy in the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse model presents some pathological features in the pre-diabetic stage. The aim of this work was to analyze the functional profile of peritoneal macrophages faced with inflammatory and phagocytic stimuli in early pregnant pre-diabetic NOD mice and their modulation by vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). Pregnant NOD mouse macrophages showed no basal NFκB activation, lower IL-12 and nitrites production compared with the macrophages from non-pregnant NOD mice. Their pro-inflammatory aberrant response to LPS and apoptotic cell challenge was reduced and VIP inhibited macrophage residual deleterious responses to apoptotic cells. A functional phenotype switch in macrophages during pregnancy in NOD mice and a promoting effect of VIP towards this regulatory phenotype would be in line with the central role of macrophages in the maternal-placental dialogue.

Potential immunomodulatory role of VIP in the implantation sites of prediabetic nonobese diabetic mice.

Among several factors known to modulate embryo implantation and survival, uterine quiescence and neovascularization, maternal immunotolerance through the Th1/Th2 cytokine balance towards a Th2 profile, local regulatory T-cell (Treg) activation, and high levels of progesterone were assigned a prominent role. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) is a neuroimmunopeptide that has anti-inflammatory effects, promotes Th2 cytokines and CD4(+)CD25(+)FOXP3(+) Treg activation, and stimulates exocrine secretion, smooth muscle relaxation, and vasodilatation favoring uterus quiescence. The goal of the present work was to explore the participation of VIP in the implantation sites of normal and pregnant prediabetic nonobese diabetic (NOD) females, a mouse strain that spontaneously develops an autoimmune exocrinopathy similar to Sjögren's syndrome. Our results indicate a reduction in litter size from the third parturition onwards in the NOD female lifespan with increased resorption rates. Progesterone systemic levels were significantly decreased in pregnant NOD mice compared with BALB/c mice, although the allogeneic response to progesterone by spleen cells was not impaired. VIP receptors, Vipr1 and Vipr2 (Vpac1 and Vpac2), were expressed at the implantation sites and VIP induced leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and Treg marker expression in both strains; however, a reduced Vip expression was found in NOD implantation sites. We conclude that the reduced birth rate at 16-week-old NOD mice with a Th1 systemic cytokine profile involves resorption processes with a lower expression of VIP at the sites of implantation, which acts as a local inducer of pro-implantatory LIF and Treg activation.

Vasoactive intestinal peptide inhibits TNF-alpha-induced apoptotic events in acinar cells from nonobese diabetic mice submandibular glands.

INTRODUCTION: The role of apoptotic secretory epithelium as a pro-inflammatory triggering factor of exocrine dysfunction is currently explored in Sjogren's syndrome patients and in the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse model. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) has anti-inflammatory effects in various models of chronic inflammation. Our goal was to analyse the effect of TNF-alpha on apoptotic mediators in isolated acinar cells from NOD submandibular gland and their modulation by VIP. METHODS: Acinar cells were isolated from submandibular glands of 16-week-old NOD females with salivary flow decline. Age-matched BALB/c females or eight-week-old NOD females were used as controls. Apoptotic mediators and TNF-alpha receptor expression were assessed by immunoblotting and RT-PCR, caspase 3 activity was assessed by optical density at 405 nm with Ac-DEVD-pNA as a substrate and chromatin condensation by Hoechst stain. They were evaluated in resting conditions and after a 3.5 or 6 hours of culture with TNF-alpha. VIP effects in acinar cells were assessed at 100 nM in TNF-alpha-treated cultures and VIP receptor functional assays by radio immunoassay (cAMP) or enzymatic detection (amylase). RESULTS: NOD acinar cells at 16 weeks present an increased expression of TNF-alpha receptor1 together with increased Bax, tumour protein 53-induced nuclear protein1alpha (TP53INP1alpha), caspase 3 activity and chromatin condensation. Acini from NOD mice were more sensitive to TNF-alpha-induced increases of apoptotic mediators than control cells. VIP inhibited TNF-alpha-induced apoptotic events through functional VPAC1 receptors coupled to the protein kinase A (PKA) signalling pathway. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that acinar cells isolated from submandibular glands of NOD mice with salivary dysfunction are more sensitive to apoptosis induced by TNF-alpha which could be prevented by VIP through a PKA-mediated pathway.

VIP modulates the pro-inflammatory maternal response, inducing tolerance to trophoblast cells.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Successful embryo implantation is followed by a local pro-inflammatory and Th1 response, subsequently controlled by a Th2 response. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) has anti-inflammatory effects and promotes tolerogenic/Th2 responses while favouring embryonic development. We investigated the potential regulatory role of VIP on human trophoblast cells, maternal pro-inflammatory responses and trophoblast-maternal leukocyte interactions. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: We tested VIP effects directly on a trophoblast cell line (Swan 71 cells) and after co-culture with maternal peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) as models of the feto-maternal dialogue. We also co-cultured maternal and paternal PBMCs to test effects of endogenous VIP on maternal alloresponses. KEY RESULTS: Swan 71 cells express VPAC(1) receptors and VIP induced their proliferation and the expression of leukaemia inhibitor factor, a pro-implantatory marker. After interaction with trophoblast cells, VIP increased Foxp3, the proportion of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ cells within maternal PBMCs and transforming growth factor beta expression. Also, during the trophoblast-maternal PBMCs interaction, VIP reduced pro-inflammatory mediators [interleukin (IL)-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, nitric oxide], while increasing IL-10. Trophoblast cells produced VIP which dose-dependently suppressed allomaternal responses, accompanied by reduced expression of the T cell transcription factor, T-bet. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Vasoactive intestinal peptide induced pro-implantatory markers and trophoblast cell proliferation, while controlling the initial pro-inflammatory response, by increasing maternal regulatory T cells and anti-inflammatory cytokines. As an autocrine regulatory peptide VIP might contribute to fetal survival through two mechanisms; a direct trophic effect on trophoblast cells and an immunomodulatory effect that favours tolerance to fetal antigens.

A potential tolerogenic immune mechanism in a trophoblast cell line through the activation of chemokine-induced T cell death and regulatory T cell modulation.

BACKGROUND: Successful implantation is followed by a local pro-inflammatory and Th1 response, subsequently controlled by Th2. Regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES) promotes a Th1 response and is implicated as a physiologic tolerogenic factor; therefore, we studied its potential role in the trophoblast-maternal leukocyte dialog. METHODS: We performed co-cultures of immortalized trophoblast cell line (Swan 71) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from fertile women (n = 23) or with recurrent spontaneous abortions (n = 18, RSA). After 24 and 48 h, supernatant and cells were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, fluorescence-activated cell sorting, Western blot and apoptosis assay. To investigate the physiological effects at peripheral level, we co-cultured maternal and paternal PBMCs with conditioned media from Swan cells and progesterone. RESULTS: Following interaction of maternal PBMCs and trophoblast cells, RANTES production increased (P < 0.05) and was accompanied by low levels of interferon gamma, interleukin-12 p70 and high levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, nitrites and leukemia-inhibitory factor. RANTES production resulted in elevated apoptosis of potentially deleterious maternal CD3+ lymphocytes, accompanied by a decrease in the proliferative maternal response. During fetal-maternal dialog, the anti-RANTES antibody significantly reduced the frequency of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ cells (P < 0.05) and was associated with trophoblast cell survival. However, co-cultures of Swan cells and RSA-PBMCs displayed a differential RANTES kinetics, lower levels of regulatory T cells (Tregs) and CD3+annexin-V+cells, accompanied by higher levels of apoptotic trophoblast cells. CONCLUSIONS: RANTES promotes an adequate pro-implantatory microenvironment that influences trophoblast cell survival and modulates the balance of maternal Treg/T effector lymphocytes in favor of maternal tolerance.

Neuroimmune-endocrine interactions during early pregnancy in an autoimmune context: focus on macrophage activation.

Neuroimmune-endocrine interactions seem to be central to the dialogue between the mother and the growing embryo during normal pregnancy. A proinflammatory Th1 microenvironment appears to be associated with embryo implantation but an excess of these cytokines may be deleterious. When normal gestation is subjected to stressful stimuli as those provided by a chronic inflammatory milieu, the activation profile of T cells and macrophages may be temporarily changed. Although much evidence supports the protective role of pregnancy in Th1 autoimmune diseases, the comprehension of the maternofetal interaction in an inflammatory context may serve to get more insight into pregnancy failures. Macrophages integrate multiple inputs and signals of neuroimmune-endocrine systems and they appear as major participants in either embryo implantation or loss. Changes at the macrophage level during gestation might help to understand their regulatory role in embryo implantation as well as to disclose their local and systemic pathogenic potential.

NOD mice exocrinopathy: towards a neuroimmune link.

Sjogren's syndrome (SS) is a chronic autoimmune disorder of exocrine glands characterized as an autoimmune exocrinopathy and more specifically as an autoimmune epithelitis. An impaired balance of neuroimmune interactions mediated by vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) in the target organ at early stages of disease is explored by means of the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse model of SS. We have previously described a reduced salivary secretion and signaling upon VIP stimulation. The effect reflected a differential regulation of the neural isoform of nitric oxide synthase by calcium calmodulin kinase II and occurred prior to the appearance of detectable levels of cytokines in NOD glands. VIP acting on NOD macrophages treated with lipopolysaccharide promoted anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting nitric oxide synthase induction as well as IL-12 and TNF-alpha production, while stimulating IL-10. Here we present evidence on the ability of apoptotic acinar cells from submandibular glands of NOD mice to stimulate nitric oxide in both peritoneal and glandular macrophage pools to a similar extent as lipopolysaccharide + IFN-gamma. VIP was not effective to prevent nitrite accumulation and modestly increased IL-10 levels in macrophages coincubated with acinar cells. An enhanced nitrite response of NOD glandular macrophages in basal and stimulated conditions compared to peritoneal cells is also shown.

VIP limits LPS-induced nitric oxide production through IL-10 in NOD mice macrophages.

The spontaneous non obese diabetic (NOD) mouse model of Sjögren's syndrome provides a valuable tool to study the onset and progression of both autoimmune response and secretory dysfunction. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) is a neuro and immunopeptide with prosecretory effect in salivary glands and anti-inflammatory actions in various models of autoimmune disease. Our purpose was to analyze the response of peritoneal macrophages to an inflammatory stimulus during the decline of salivary secretion in NOD mice and the potential anti-inflammatory effect of VIP. We present evidence of an increased nitric oxide production by peritoneal macrophages of NOD mice in basal and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)+IFN-gamma-stimulated conditions and a lower IL-10 response to LPS compared with normal BALB/c mice. VIP inhibited LPS-induced TNF-alpha, IL-12 and nitrites accumulation in NOD macrophages while it increased IL-10 production. VIP effect was prevented by an anti-IL-10 monoclonal antibody and it showed an additive effect on exogenously added IL-10 only in NOD mice. The inhibitory effect of VIP-induced IL-10 on nitrites was mediated by COX metabolites mostly in NOD cells as indomethacine inhibited both the increase in IL-10 and the reduction of nitrites exerted by VIP. We conclude that both PGE2 and VIP inhibit nitric oxide production and increase IL-10 induced by LPS in NOD macrophages and VIP effect is mediated through an increase of COX metabolites and IL-10.

Reduced nitric oxide synthase and cyclo-oxygenase activity in the uterus of non-obese diabetic mice.

A functional interaction between progesterone, Th2 cytokines and a suitable balance between nitric oxide and prostaglandins in the uterus is considered to have a major role in the success of embryo implantation and pregnancy. Non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice offer a suitable model to study the modulatory role of Th1 cytokines on uterus signalling and function, since at the prediabetic stage they develop a spontaneous Th1 autoimmune response against exocrine glands similar to Sjögren's syndrome. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) is a vasoactive neuro- and immunopeptide that promotes Th2 profiles and contributes to the smooth muscle relaxation and vasodilation. The aim of the present study was to investigate the activities of nitric oxide synthase and cyclo-oxygenase and the effect of VIP in the uterus of NOD mice with an emerging Th1 cytokine response. We present evidence of a reduced basal and VIP-stimulated activity of both enzymes in the uterus of NOD mice compared with normal BALB/c mice in proestrus. An altered functional interaction between both enzymes is also present in NOD mice at the time when increased levels of serum interleukin (IL)-12 and tumour necrosis factor-alpha but not interferon (IFN)-gamma or IL-10 were detected. We conclude that signalling alterations in uteri of NOD mice are simultaneous to the onset of a systemic Th1 cytokine response.

Lack of nitric oxide-mediated regulation of amylase secretion stimulated by VIP in parotid glands of NOD mice.

The non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse is chosen among other experimental models to study autoimmune sialadenitis resembling Sjögren's syndrome (SS), because of its unique characteristic of developing salivary dysfunction. Based on the deep loss of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity in parotid glands of NOD mice observed from early stages of disease and the inhibitory effect of nitric oxide (NO) donors on amylase secretion in normal salivary glands, our goal was to investigate whether parotid glands from NOD mice lacking NOS activity presented this regulatory mechanism of amylase secretion. We found that parotid glands from NOD mice lack nitric oxide-mediated regulation of amylase secretion in response to VIP stimulation. The lack of regulation might be assigned to the loss of NOS activity as derived from the results with NOS inhibitors and increasing concentrations of VIP. These functional differences observed in NOD vs. BALB/c parotid glands occur in the absence of immune infiltrates in exocrine tissue, and it is not related to cAMP accumulation. NO-mediated regulation of amylase secretion was not observed in BALB/c submandibular glands to the same extent as described in parotid glands and was absent in submandibular glands of NOD mice.